Causes and Effects of Growing Terrorism

Causes and Effects of Growing Terrorism Chapter 1 Introduction The Threat from Terrorism There are very few humans in the world today who have not had their lives altered or affected in some way through terrorist acts or the threat from terrorism. The highly publicized terrorist attacks in the United States, London, Madrid, and Mumbai were seen worldwide and have lead to sweeping changes in the security postures of many western and developed nations, as well as to a multi-nation war in Afghanistan. For those that have not felt the direct effects by losing someone close to them, there are many life altering after-shocks have had global reach and thus have effected nearly everyone. Every person who uses public transportation, rides in a plane/train, or crosses an international border will feel the effects of international terrorism through vastly increased security measures. Terrorism has changed foreign policy for many nations and has lead to wars.[1] In all, terrorism is rewriting the geopolitical map as we see it now and in the decades to come, will continue to change t he world as we know it. Radical Militant Islamic Groups There are many religions and political factions that have terrorist cells. In fact, in this day and age, one would be hard pressed to find a country or religion that does not have some form of fundamental or radicalized terrorist group in its midst. Groups espousing terror find roots in Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism and Hinduism.[2] This being said, in recent times, the most dangerous threat to western and developed nations comes from the Radical Militant Islamic Groups. These Islamic Militants have not only local and national reach, but can project their influence regionally and even globally (as seen with Al Qaeda and Hezbollah), and thus will be the focus of this dissertation. Shifting Sands: Since as far back as history dates, there has been war between peoples. Sometimes these peoples were evenly matched, and the battles pitted large armies against one another. Yet at other times, the odds were heavily in favor of one side, and the lesser of these groups had to resort to non-traditional warfare to inflict losses on their enemy. Sometimes these attacks were focused on the enemys military, and sometimes these attacks were focused on the citizenry of the enemy nation. The enemies could be nation vs nation or sometimes they were nation vs a non-state actor group. The pendulum has swung back and forth throughout history as to what is the root of terrorist groups. With the emergence of Al Qaeda we have seen that in the present day the non-state actor terrorist groups have taken center stage, though this may be about to change. Attempt to predict the future This paper engages the probability of predicting the future of global terrorism. This is achieved by analyzing the history of the origins and conceptual changes of terrorism over years past and current trends of terrorism as seen through the data available from the terrorism scholars of today. Though terrorism is not a completely Islamic phenomena, this paper will focus on terrorism from Radical Militant Islamic Groups, as this is the most predominant form of terrorism seen in the present day. It will attempt to lay out the evolution of terrorism to give some basis for a review of the current most important trends in terrorism. It will discuss the origins of ethno-nationalist (or state sponsored) terrorism and further discuss how this has morphed into the new transnational (or non-state actor) terrorism of today. Finally the paper will set the stage for the prediction of a future shift back to state sponsored terrorism and outline the reasons why this is going to occur. Chapter II Evolution of Terrorism – Historical Roots Mr. Speaker, I agree with those who say that the Global War  on Terrorism is actually a Global War of Ideas and that  terrorism is one of the tactics used in that War. Mac Thornberry (US Congressman) P re-Modern World: 1st Century BC to the 13th Century The history of [6] 1793: The Origins of Modern Terrorism In 1793, following the French revolution, Maximilien Robespierre instigated a reign of terror on those who opposed the French revolution.[7] This reign of terror is conventionally known as the birthplace of the word Terrorism.[9] Robespierres sentiment is the keystone in the beliefs of many modern terrorists, who consider violence the best and most efficient way to get to their desired outcome. As decades passed, the categorization of terrorism as a state action has blurred, as the idea of terrorism as an attack against an existing political order became more prominent. 1950s: The Rise of Non-State Terrorism Terrorism in the 1950s got its start from the guerilla warfare tactics popular with many insurgent groups of the time. This rise of guerrilla tactics by non-state actors in the last half of the twentieth century was due to several factors. These included the blossoming of ethnic nationalism (e.g. Irish, Basque, Zionist), anti-colonial sentiments in the vast British, French and Dutch empires, and new ideologies such as communism. In near recent times, terrorist groups with nationalist agendas have sprung up in every part of the world. For example, the Irish Republican Army grew from the desire of Irish Catholics to form an independent republic, and break their ties with Great Britain.[10] Similarly, the Kurds, a distinct ethnic and linguistic group in Turkey, Syria, Iran and Iraq, have sought national autonomy since the beginning of the 20th Century.[13] 1970s: The International Turn of Terrorism International terrorism came to the forefront as a prominent issue in the late 1960s, when hijacking of large airliners became a favored tactic. In 1968, the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine became the first group to hijack an aircraft.[18] 1990s: 21 st Century: The Rise of Religious Terrorism Though an argument can be made that the rise of religiously motivated terrorism got its modern day start in Iran and Afghanistan to counter the political issues of the Shah and the Soviet Union, it came to the forefront with many highly visible violent acts committed during the 1990s. Groups that justify their violence on Islamic grounds Al Qaeda, Hamas, and Hezbollah come to mind first. But Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism and other religions have given rise to their own forms of militant extremism.[19] In recent years RMIGs have taken center stage for their astoundingly violent acts perpetrated against the citizenry of non-Muslim cultures. Chapter III Trends in Terrorism When you give religiously inspired zealots weapons of mass destruction and you promise them that if they kill innocent people they will go to heaven, imagine what the consequences are. Major Changes are Ahead There are major changes coming to terrorism in the years ahead. These changes can be seen from the trends of today, and will deeply change the threat to marked nations by terrorists and the terms on which we must fight the war against RMIGs. The top trends that will influence the changes in Terrorism Globally are summarized below. Fertility rates will lead Western Countries to come under Islamic rule In contrast to the developing world, many industrialized countries are currently, or will soon, see fertility rates below the replacement level and hence significant declines in populations, excluding the effects of immigration[22] Militant Islam continues to grow in both membership and power It has been clear for years that many Islamic nations face severe problems with religious extremists who are dedicated to advancing their political, social, and ideological views by any means necessary.[23] Nearly all of the Muslim lands are overcrowded and short of resources. Many are poor, save for the oil-rich states of the Middle East.[27] The Terrorist Ranks Are Growing The post 9/11 invasion of Afghanistan that lead to the unseating of the Taliban regime deprived Al Qaeda of a safe haven, striking a major blow against the global terrorist movement, yet by not following up effectively on that initial success, a great deal of benefit that could have been solidified was squandered. Additionally, with the invasion of Iraq, Al Qaeda and its sympathizers now have new grounds from which they can unite their members and, more importantly, recruit new ones.[32] At the heart of the Middle East fundamentalist movement are the wahabists of Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia has recently been forced to enact a program designed to keep Muslim men from going to Iraq to wage war against the coalition forces in a global jihad.[35] In this way, the foundation for terrorist cells are built which are independent of Al Qaeda but resolutely committed to the same objectives. Examples of this have been seen in the Madrid railway bombings which were carried out by Al Qaeda inspired Moroccan terrorist cell who were motivated by the Iraq invasion.[39] It is clear that RMIGs have significant sympathy among Europes Muslim population. The French riots of October and November 2005 affected at least twenty cities in that country, resulting in 2,888 arrests, leading to a further spill over of violence in Greece, Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, Denmark, and Switzerland.[40] It has been proven that Saudi Arabia continues to fund and maintain connections with a broad group of religious schools, stretching from Pakistan to New York, and from the Philippines to India.[44] Individuals from Europe and the Middle East are embracing the extremist teachings, traveling to Afghanistan, Kashmir and Iraq to fight, and returning to their own countries, with the rights of western citizens to carry the fight against the very nations they were born to. RMIGs Will Gain Access to Weapons of Mass Destruction It must be assumed that tomorrows terrorists will make every effort to ensure that they have more than unconventional amounts of conventional explosives with which to make their violent point.[46] Pakistan represents by far the greatest opportunity for would-be nuclear terrorists to become nuclear terrorists. If Muslim extremists cannot gain access to stolen weapons from the former Soviet Republics, Islamabad may be their provider. Thankfully, this seems not to be a guarantee that terrorists will use nuclear weapons against the potential western targets. RMIGs will most likely receive large, hard to conceal, low-yield devices that will be difficult to smuggle to their target. Though one can be certain that terrorist organizations will try anyway, other weapons of mass destruction (WMD) look to be a much more likely option. Clouds of toxic gas or incompletely weaponized bacteria could find their way into New York City, London or Paris. Even more likely is the chemical weapon threat. As the Japanese cult Aum Shinrikyo, demonstrated in a Tokyo subway in 1995, chemical weapons are available to essentially anyone who wants them badly enough to put in a modest effort to make or buy them.[47] The Home Grown threat from Muslim extremists is on the rise A 1994 terrorism study by the US Department of Defense predicted that by 2020 a majority of the worlds most important Muslim lands could be controlled by extremist religious governments.[52] Beyond that, for the first time, an Islamic country, Pakistan, has nuclear weapons. As previously mentioned, Islamic extremists view this technology as an Islamic bomb that could be used to promote their apocalyptic ideology, making nuclear terrorism a realistic threat. This threat will grow as Iraq, Sudan, Saudi Arabia, and other countries establish fundamentalist regimes that are willing to back the cause of jihad against the West. Saudi Arabia is well on the path to be taken over by a fundamentalist regime, and to attempt to postpone this, the Saud family will continue to provide more support to extremists and endeavor to direct the RMIGs attention to the West.[53] The overthrow of the Taliban in Afghanistan and the war in Iraq have strengthened the global jihadist movement, given them a training ground and built up the contacts for future terrorist acts. The gap between the Haves and the Have Nots will continue to increase The growing gap in wealth between the rich and poor countries looks as if it will further destabilize the world order, continuing to encourage prospective RMIGs in the less developed nations to foment violence against the rich in their own countries, or when available against western targets. This rising gap in wealth within many prosperous nations has the possibility to set off discontent among the less well-off, possibly helping to inspire random violence and acts of domestic terrorism in the West. The growing gap in wealth and income between the rich and the poor also may inspire conversion to Islam in the West, principally among the underprivileged. As seen in England and Australia, this can be a source of violent extremism among both immigrant and native populations.[54] Population growth is highest in those countries least able to support the growth The greatest fertility rates are found in those countries least able to support their existing populations: the largest population increases projected between 2000 and 2050 include the Palestinian Territory (217 percent), Niger (205 percent), Yemen (168 percent), Angola (162 percent), the Democratic Republic of Congo (161 percent), and Uganda (133 percent).[55] The Muslim world is reproducing at an extremely high rate, with fertility rates of 7.5 in Afghanistan, 6.0 in Yemen, and 4.9 in Iraq.[57] Even these estimates appear to be on the low side. According to CSIS, most official projections underestimate both the fertility rates and age of mortality, as well as making the assumption that life expectancy will grow more slowly in the future, which seems unlikely as world healthcare only continues to get better. Growing Western prosperity relative to other countries with rapidly growing populations and overburdened economies will continue to make the developed nations a target for terrorism. Shortages of food could help to motivate extremism unless the industrialized nations make a determined, visible effort to provide for the worlds poor. (Food production in the next 40 years will need to be significantly higher then ever before in the worlds history to keep the exploding world population from starvation).[58] Urbanization, will continue to increase rapidly According to the Population Reference Bureaus 2006 World Population Data Sheet, Forty-eight percent of the worlds population currently lives in cities. By 2030 that figure is expected to grow to 60 percent, as approximately 2.1 billion more people move to the worlds urban centers.[59] In industrialized nations, on average, more than three-fourths of the population lives in urban areas (urban areas are defined differently for each country).[62] Right now, there are billions of people who live in urban areas who lack adequate clean water, shelter, toilets and hygiene areas, and/or electricity.[63] The problems this raises with reference to crime, violence, and religious extremism is readily apparent. Concentrating the poor, oppressed and powerless in large cloistered urban centers produces conditions ideal for the spread of crime and the type of religious extremism that lends itself to violent ideologies. Chapter IV Old Terrorism Any government that supports, protects or harbours terrorists is complicit in the murder of the innocent and equally guilty of terrorist crimes. George W. Bush Old Terrorism – Ethno -nationalist or Ideological, and state sponsored What are the differences between the legitimate tactics used by authorities in the quelling or defence of terrorism, and terrorism itself? Nations at times will use violence to control or manipulate parts of their populace, or use intimidation to get what they desire.[67] A government that is an adversary of Country B may apply terror tactics in an effort to make up for real or perceived inadequacies in conventional warfare capabilities. Repression through terror of the indigenous population of their own country may occur to stop the dissent or violent uprising inside the country that Country B might exploit. Special Operations forces, paramilitary forces and state intelligence assets could conduct terrorist operations against Country B interests both inter-regionally and as far outside the countries borders as the abilities of their external security apparatus will allow to destabilize Country B and bring desired visibility to the sponsoring governments issues. Finally, attacks on Country B on their home soil may be conducted by RMIGs of the state or by other domestic proxies.[68] This is being seen today in Iraq with the Iranian involvement to destabilize Iraq and kill coalition servicemen, as well as Pakistans efforts to destabilize the Jammu and K ashmir region of India. Forms of State Terror Governmental or State terror State involvement in terror State sponsorship of terrorism Turning a blind eye to the harboring/funding of terror groups in their borders[69] Governmental or State terror Governmental or State terror is normally seen when a regime uses threats or outright terror to its own populace to exert power over or suppress them.[73] These weapons were not used against the majority Muslim population in the southern 2/3 of Iraq, where he accomplished his goals using conventional state terror methods. State involvement in terror State involvement in terror includes the activities where government personnel perform operations using terror tactics that are directed against other nations interests, individuals or private groups that have opposing or controversial opinions/actions viewed as counter to that of the state. In essence, it is governmentally authorized terrorism, though these sanctions hardly ever come to public light. Some past examples of this governmentally authorized terrorism are the assassination include the Soviet and Iranian assassination operations aimed at state dissidents who moved abroad for fear of their lives. Additionally, the targeting and destroying (through a covert bombing campaign carried out by Libyan and North Korean intelligence officers) of international airliners was another past example of this form of terrorism.[75] A further form of state involvement in terror is pro-state terror. This is a terror campaign carried out by small groups or individual people who have no authorized status in the system. These type of attacks generally are lacking in official support as well. Pro-state terror may have the end result of a desired outcome which the government wants. In these cases, with official use of violent crime tacitly supported by the authorities, even though the groups or individuals have gone outside the rule of punishment of the terrorists is rare. State sponsorship of terrorism State sponsorship of terrorism, also referred to as state supported terrorism, represents a situation when non-state terrorist organizations are trained, equipped and operationalized by an authorized national governmental agency. A very productive aspects of this support is the providing of safe havens for terrorists organizations.[78] Examples of state sponsorship of terrorism are the overt support by the government of Syria to Hamas as well as Lebanons overt support and backing of Hezbollah. Syrian funding and the providing of safe havens facilitate many training areas in the Beka Valley territory.[81] Chapter V New Terrorism Terrorism is carried out purposefully, in a cold-blooded, calculated fashion. The declared goals of the terrorist may change from place to place. He supposedly fig problems his only solution is the demolition of the whole structure of society. No partial solution, not even the total redressing of the grievance he complains of, will satisfy him until our social system is destroyed or delivered into his hands. BENJAMIN NETANYAHU, International Terrorism New Terrorism – Transnational or Global Jihadism The first efforts to describe a new form of terrorism began to occur in the 1990s, when scholars of terrorism attempted to make sense of a phenomenon they were seeing that did not fit into the previous model of terrorism in the 1970s and 1980s. Attacks such as that of the religious cult Aum Shinrikyo did not make sense without a reconsideration of the old model. In reality, the term new terrorism truly came into its own only after the September 11, 2001 attacks.[82] In a short comparative of the new and old terrorism, it has been stated that: * The new terrorism is justified on religious and apocalyptic grounds, while the old terrorism was rooted in political ideology.[83] * The new terrorism aims at destruction as an end in itself, while the old terrorism used violent destruction as a means to a political end;[84] * The new terrorism is organizationally distinct from the old terrorism. It is hierarchical (has many equally authoritative points of leadership) and horizontal, rather than hierarchical and vertical; it is decentralized rather than centralized;[85] * The new terrorism aims at as much destruction as possible, whether through devastating forms of weaponry or techniques such as suicide terrorism, whereas the old terrorism sought to create a dramatic spectacle with as little damage as possible;[86] More recently, those who write about new terrorism have focused on a perceived new threat of mass casualties caused by chemical, biological or other agents.[89] On the counter point, when one looks holistically and historically at Terrorism, there seems to be no old or new terrorism, just a Darwinistic evolution of violence for political purposes. Even Martha Crenshaw, the noted terrorism expert who is a staunch advocate against the use of the term New Terrorism states the following in comparing and contrasting the goals, methods, and organization of New and Old Terrorism: Goals The new terrorism model assumes uniformly that religion, primarily of those groups with millennial and apocalyptic ideologies, is the main precipitating factor. The new terrorists are said to have ambiguous goals on the systemic level and to value destruction for its own sake (i.e., the means are the ends). By contrast, the old terrorism is seen as comprehensible, limited, more specific, and often tied to territory – thus making the grievance more susceptible to negotiation. How well does the new terrorism model fit the historical record? Crenshaw observes that the religion behind various groups (e.g., Aum Shinrikyo versus Al Qaeda) differs, as do their goals (i.e., local or global). She also notes that some of the old terrorist groups (e.g., the 19th century anarchists and the Red Army Faction) had broad, transnational goals.[90] Means According to the new terrorism model, groups seek to kill as many people as possible and are particularly drawn to weapons of mass destruction, whereas the old terrorism approach assumed that the groups were limited in their means as well as goals. Crenshaw acknowledged that the new terrorism model best fits with respect to this criterion. [91] Organization and structure The new terrorists are decentralized and networked, are inspiration-driven, and often include amateurs. By contrast, the old terrorists are centralized, top-down, professional organizations that are often state sponsored. The new terrorism distinction only partly meets this criterion as many of the old terrorist groups, such as the Red Army faction, were not so monolithic. The bottom line seems to lend itself to seeing terrorism as not new in kind, but in degree and structure.[92] The new terror groups of today (Al Qaeda being the most well known) center mainly around religion as a core for recruitment and promulgation of ideology. Islam is the religion of choice and has found a massive following in Middle Eastern Arab Muslims, especially the Wahabists of Saudi Arabia, but the splinter groups, or those groups loosely associated, have worldwide reach.[93] These organizations differ significantly from more traditional terrorist organizations of past decades. The groups of today do not depend on the sponsorship of a political state, and, unlike the PLO or the IRA, they are not defined by a particular conflict. Instead, these groups operate analogous to the businesses McDonalds or Starbucks. Al Qaeda is the franchise owner, providing financial and logistical support, as well as name recognition, to local, regional and transnational terrorist groups operating in such diverse places as the Philippines, Algeria, Eritrea, Afghanistan, Chechnya, Tajikistan, Somalia, Ye men, and Kashmir. Local groups may carry out acts in the name of al-Qaeda in order to bolster their own reputation—even if they are not receiving support from the organization. This is possible because the ideology that al Qaeda has developed and promulgated focuses their concepts to stress a few main tenants to ensure the survival and spread of the movement. Ensuring the perpetuity of the fight.[94] Obeying the individual obligation to fight Islams enemies regardless of the apparent outcome of battle[95] Institutionalizing a culture of martyrdom[96] Pinpointing Islams enemies through the refining process of jihad, and thus maintaining its identity[97] Establishing pride, brotherhood, and unity in the face of threats to the ummah[98] Creating a parity of suffering with Islams enemies—especially the Jews and Crusaders[99] Victory is seen in the maladies afflicting Gods enemies, especially economic recession and natural disasters[100] Observing miracles and dreams in jihad, which foretell of divine guidance and ultimate victory for the mujahedeen[101] As long as groups follow these main tenants, and focus their violence against the common enemy, then they are supporting the common cause. Due to this, Scott Atran argues that it is not religion, but group dynamics based off of social needs that fuels the Global Jihadist movement but small-group dynamics involving friends and family that form the diaspora cell of brotherhood and camaraderie on which the rising tide of martyrdom actions is based.[102] As mentioned by Crenshaw above, one of the main improvements of New terrorism is that of decentralized execution of actions that may or may not have been planned by some higher authority. As stated in the United States Air Force Defense Doctrine publication 1, Decentralized execution is, the delegation of execution authority to responsible and capable lower-level commanders to achieve effective span of control and to foster disciplined initiative, situational responsiveness, and tactical flexibility.[103] Chapter VI New Old Terrorism In todays wars, there are no morals. We believe the worst thieves in the world today and the worst terrorists are the Americans. We do not have to differentiate between military or civilian. As far as we are concerned, they are all targets. Osama Bin Laden Time magazine profile (16 September 2001) The Pendulum Swings Back For better or worse (and this author believes it is worsemuch worse) the pendulum is swinging back in the direction of state sponsored terrorism. For nations like Pakistan and Iran, the pendulum never moved, as these countries have been manning, training, equipping, and operationalizing terrorist groups for decades.[108] Iran has consistently been described by the United States as the worlds foremost state sponsor of terrorism. It actively supports terrorist groups, most prominently the Lebanese group Hezbollah.[115]. Iran and Hezbollah Hezbollah, a radical Shiite militia based in Lebanon, is a direct product of funding and training by Irans IRGC (QF). It was formally established in 1982 following the Israeli invasion of Lebanon, aimed at uprooting the PLO (Palestinian Liberation Organization) bases there.[119] RMIG takeover of Islamic Nations For other nations that have not been wholly engaged in state sponsored terrorism, there are growing dangers as well. There are two types of new and developing state sponsored terrorism which may very soon roll a number of these nations into the terrorist state fold. The first one, unfortunately, we are all familiar with, as the most accurate example being the Al Qaeda infiltration of Afghanistan. After the Soviet Union finally withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989 the communist Afghani government hung on for three more years, and then was finally overrun by RMIGs.[121] These services and practical, day-to-day contributions to the lives of ordinary citizens will provide a legitimacy and underpinning for future political activities by terrorist organizations. This RMIG sponsored ground root social support, combined with the reality that in almost every country in the Muslim world, western focused terrorism already has the sympathy of a majority of the population and the strong allegiance o f many, will in the near future give rise to terrorist based governments in many middle-eastern countries. The second development in state sponsored terrorism is focused at the western nations, with Europe directly in the crosshairs and North America soon to follow. The most dangerous and most likely future development in the spread of terrorism is that caused by population growth and immigration of Muslims into western lands. The bottom line is that there is a near irreversible trend in the expansion of Islam into Europe and Canada.[125] In essence, Europe in the next 50 years will be of a very different demographic makeup as it is now. Of all population growth in the EU in the last 20 years, 90% has been from immigrants, much of which were Islamic.[126] In France, though the statistics vary, the Islamic fertility rate is considered much higher than the 1.8 of native Frenchmen, as Islamic immigrants make up only 7.5% of the population yet account for 20% of the fertility rate.[128] It is not just France. As of 2001, the Muslim population in Great Britain rose from 82,000 in 1991 to 1,600,000 (Estimated at 2,500,000 today).[131] Compared to the decline in population of a majority of the industrialized nations, The United States (thanks to Latino immigration) will maintain the current fertility rate of 2.11 children per couple, thus providing the body pool to maintain strength in the global economy, as the European Union falls to third place behind the United States and China.[132] Whether it be by overthrow in an unstable middle-eastern country, or out-breeding the populations of western nations, it can be assumed that RMIGs will gain control of (or at least strong influence over) a functioning country in the next half century. If the terrorists do gain control of a country with a fully functioning and stable government, the nature of the game changes drastically. When terrorists becomethe government, all terrorism is state-sponsored The nations wealth, scientists, laboratories and research facilities can be focused to develop weapons of mass destruction of all types for use in the global jihad. Even in the absence of WMD, by gaining the status and legitimacy of a national government, radical Islamists will present western and developed nations with a difficult problem. We have seen in Afghanistan and Pakistan the benefits that a sovereign safe-haven has provi Causes and Effects of Growing Terrorism Causes and Effects of Growing Terrorism Chapter 1 Introduction The Threat from Terrorism There are very few humans in the world today who have not had their lives altered or affected in some way through terrorist acts or the threat from terrorism. The highly publicized terrorist attacks in the United States, London, Madrid, and Mumbai were seen worldwide and have lead to sweeping changes in the security postures of many western and developed nations, as well as to a multi-nation war in Afghanistan. For those that have not felt the direct effects by losing someone close to them, there are many life altering after-shocks have had global reach and thus have effected nearly everyone. Every person who uses public transportation, rides in a plane/train, or crosses an international border will feel the effects of international terrorism through vastly increased security measures. Terrorism has changed foreign policy for many nations and has lead to wars.[1] In all, terrorism is rewriting the geopolitical map as we see it now and in the decades to come, will continue to change t he world as we know it. Radical Militant Islamic Groups There are many religions and political factions that have terrorist cells. In fact, in this day and age, one would be hard pressed to find a country or religion that does not have some form of fundamental or radicalized terrorist group in its midst. Groups espousing terror find roots in Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism and Hinduism.[2] This being said, in recent times, the most dangerous threat to western and developed nations comes from the Radical Militant Islamic Groups. These Islamic Militants have not only local and national reach, but can project their influence regionally and even globally (as seen with Al Qaeda and Hezbollah), and thus will be the focus of this dissertation. Shifting Sands: Since as far back as history dates, there has been war between peoples. Sometimes these peoples were evenly matched, and the battles pitted large armies against one another. Yet at other times, the odds were heavily in favor of one side, and the lesser of these groups had to resort to non-traditional warfare to inflict losses on their enemy. Sometimes these attacks were focused on the enemys military, and sometimes these attacks were focused on the citizenry of the enemy nation. The enemies could be nation vs nation or sometimes they were nation vs a non-state actor group. The pendulum has swung back and forth throughout history as to what is the root of terrorist groups. With the emergence of Al Qaeda we have seen that in the present day the non-state actor terrorist groups have taken center stage, though this may be about to change. Attempt to predict the future This paper engages the probability of predicting the future of global terrorism. This is achieved by analyzing the history of the origins and conceptual changes of terrorism over years past and current trends of terrorism as seen through the data available from the terrorism scholars of today. Though terrorism is not a completely Islamic phenomena, this paper will focus on terrorism from Radical Militant Islamic Groups, as this is the most predominant form of terrorism seen in the present day. It will attempt to lay out the evolution of terrorism to give some basis for a review of the current most important trends in terrorism. It will discuss the origins of ethno-nationalist (or state sponsored) terrorism and further discuss how this has morphed into the new transnational (or non-state actor) terrorism of today. Finally the paper will set the stage for the prediction of a future shift back to state sponsored terrorism and outline the reasons why this is going to occur. Chapter II Evolution of Terrorism – Historical Roots Mr. Speaker, I agree with those who say that the Global War  on Terrorism is actually a Global War of Ideas and that  terrorism is one of the tactics used in that War. Mac Thornberry (US Congressman) P re-Modern World: 1st Century BC to the 13th Century The history of [6] 1793: The Origins of Modern Terrorism In 1793, following the French revolution, Maximilien Robespierre instigated a reign of terror on those who opposed the French revolution.[7] This reign of terror is conventionally known as the birthplace of the word Terrorism.[9] Robespierres sentiment is the keystone in the beliefs of many modern terrorists, who consider violence the best and most efficient way to get to their desired outcome. As decades passed, the categorization of terrorism as a state action has blurred, as the idea of terrorism as an attack against an existing political order became more prominent. 1950s: The Rise of Non-State Terrorism Terrorism in the 1950s got its start from the guerilla warfare tactics popular with many insurgent groups of the time. This rise of guerrilla tactics by non-state actors in the last half of the twentieth century was due to several factors. These included the blossoming of ethnic nationalism (e.g. Irish, Basque, Zionist), anti-colonial sentiments in the vast British, French and Dutch empires, and new ideologies such as communism. In near recent times, terrorist groups with nationalist agendas have sprung up in every part of the world. For example, the Irish Republican Army grew from the desire of Irish Catholics to form an independent republic, and break their ties with Great Britain.[10] Similarly, the Kurds, a distinct ethnic and linguistic group in Turkey, Syria, Iran and Iraq, have sought national autonomy since the beginning of the 20th Century.[13] 1970s: The International Turn of Terrorism International terrorism came to the forefront as a prominent issue in the late 1960s, when hijacking of large airliners became a favored tactic. In 1968, the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine became the first group to hijack an aircraft.[18] 1990s: 21 st Century: The Rise of Religious Terrorism Though an argument can be made that the rise of religiously motivated terrorism got its modern day start in Iran and Afghanistan to counter the political issues of the Shah and the Soviet Union, it came to the forefront with many highly visible violent acts committed during the 1990s. Groups that justify their violence on Islamic grounds Al Qaeda, Hamas, and Hezbollah come to mind first. But Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism and other religions have given rise to their own forms of militant extremism.[19] In recent years RMIGs have taken center stage for their astoundingly violent acts perpetrated against the citizenry of non-Muslim cultures. Chapter III Trends in Terrorism When you give religiously inspired zealots weapons of mass destruction and you promise them that if they kill innocent people they will go to heaven, imagine what the consequences are. Major Changes are Ahead There are major changes coming to terrorism in the years ahead. These changes can be seen from the trends of today, and will deeply change the threat to marked nations by terrorists and the terms on which we must fight the war against RMIGs. The top trends that will influence the changes in Terrorism Globally are summarized below. Fertility rates will lead Western Countries to come under Islamic rule In contrast to the developing world, many industrialized countries are currently, or will soon, see fertility rates below the replacement level and hence significant declines in populations, excluding the effects of immigration[22] Militant Islam continues to grow in both membership and power It has been clear for years that many Islamic nations face severe problems with religious extremists who are dedicated to advancing their political, social, and ideological views by any means necessary.[23] Nearly all of the Muslim lands are overcrowded and short of resources. Many are poor, save for the oil-rich states of the Middle East.[27] The Terrorist Ranks Are Growing The post 9/11 invasion of Afghanistan that lead to the unseating of the Taliban regime deprived Al Qaeda of a safe haven, striking a major blow against the global terrorist movement, yet by not following up effectively on that initial success, a great deal of benefit that could have been solidified was squandered. Additionally, with the invasion of Iraq, Al Qaeda and its sympathizers now have new grounds from which they can unite their members and, more importantly, recruit new ones.[32] At the heart of the Middle East fundamentalist movement are the wahabists of Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia has recently been forced to enact a program designed to keep Muslim men from going to Iraq to wage war against the coalition forces in a global jihad.[35] In this way, the foundation for terrorist cells are built which are independent of Al Qaeda but resolutely committed to the same objectives. Examples of this have been seen in the Madrid railway bombings which were carried out by Al Qaeda inspired Moroccan terrorist cell who were motivated by the Iraq invasion.[39] It is clear that RMIGs have significant sympathy among Europes Muslim population. The French riots of October and November 2005 affected at least twenty cities in that country, resulting in 2,888 arrests, leading to a further spill over of violence in Greece, Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, Denmark, and Switzerland.[40] It has been proven that Saudi Arabia continues to fund and maintain connections with a broad group of religious schools, stretching from Pakistan to New York, and from the Philippines to India.[44] Individuals from Europe and the Middle East are embracing the extremist teachings, traveling to Afghanistan, Kashmir and Iraq to fight, and returning to their own countries, with the rights of western citizens to carry the fight against the very nations they were born to. RMIGs Will Gain Access to Weapons of Mass Destruction It must be assumed that tomorrows terrorists will make every effort to ensure that they have more than unconventional amounts of conventional explosives with which to make their violent point.[46] Pakistan represents by far the greatest opportunity for would-be nuclear terrorists to become nuclear terrorists. If Muslim extremists cannot gain access to stolen weapons from the former Soviet Republics, Islamabad may be their provider. Thankfully, this seems not to be a guarantee that terrorists will use nuclear weapons against the potential western targets. RMIGs will most likely receive large, hard to conceal, low-yield devices that will be difficult to smuggle to their target. Though one can be certain that terrorist organizations will try anyway, other weapons of mass destruction (WMD) look to be a much more likely option. Clouds of toxic gas or incompletely weaponized bacteria could find their way into New York City, London or Paris. Even more likely is the chemical weapon threat. As the Japanese cult Aum Shinrikyo, demonstrated in a Tokyo subway in 1995, chemical weapons are available to essentially anyone who wants them badly enough to put in a modest effort to make or buy them.[47] The Home Grown threat from Muslim extremists is on the rise A 1994 terrorism study by the US Department of Defense predicted that by 2020 a majority of the worlds most important Muslim lands could be controlled by extremist religious governments.[52] Beyond that, for the first time, an Islamic country, Pakistan, has nuclear weapons. As previously mentioned, Islamic extremists view this technology as an Islamic bomb that could be used to promote their apocalyptic ideology, making nuclear terrorism a realistic threat. This threat will grow as Iraq, Sudan, Saudi Arabia, and other countries establish fundamentalist regimes that are willing to back the cause of jihad against the West. Saudi Arabia is well on the path to be taken over by a fundamentalist regime, and to attempt to postpone this, the Saud family will continue to provide more support to extremists and endeavor to direct the RMIGs attention to the West.[53] The overthrow of the Taliban in Afghanistan and the war in Iraq have strengthened the global jihadist movement, given them a training ground and built up the contacts for future terrorist acts. The gap between the Haves and the Have Nots will continue to increase The growing gap in wealth between the rich and poor countries looks as if it will further destabilize the world order, continuing to encourage prospective RMIGs in the less developed nations to foment violence against the rich in their own countries, or when available against western targets. This rising gap in wealth within many prosperous nations has the possibility to set off discontent among the less well-off, possibly helping to inspire random violence and acts of domestic terrorism in the West. The growing gap in wealth and income between the rich and the poor also may inspire conversion to Islam in the West, principally among the underprivileged. As seen in England and Australia, this can be a source of violent extremism among both immigrant and native populations.[54] Population growth is highest in those countries least able to support the growth The greatest fertility rates are found in those countries least able to support their existing populations: the largest population increases projected between 2000 and 2050 include the Palestinian Territory (217 percent), Niger (205 percent), Yemen (168 percent), Angola (162 percent), the Democratic Republic of Congo (161 percent), and Uganda (133 percent).[55] The Muslim world is reproducing at an extremely high rate, with fertility rates of 7.5 in Afghanistan, 6.0 in Yemen, and 4.9 in Iraq.[57] Even these estimates appear to be on the low side. According to CSIS, most official projections underestimate both the fertility rates and age of mortality, as well as making the assumption that life expectancy will grow more slowly in the future, which seems unlikely as world healthcare only continues to get better. Growing Western prosperity relative to other countries with rapidly growing populations and overburdened economies will continue to make the developed nations a target for terrorism. Shortages of food could help to motivate extremism unless the industrialized nations make a determined, visible effort to provide for the worlds poor. (Food production in the next 40 years will need to be significantly higher then ever before in the worlds history to keep the exploding world population from starvation).[58] Urbanization, will continue to increase rapidly According to the Population Reference Bureaus 2006 World Population Data Sheet, Forty-eight percent of the worlds population currently lives in cities. By 2030 that figure is expected to grow to 60 percent, as approximately 2.1 billion more people move to the worlds urban centers.[59] In industrialized nations, on average, more than three-fourths of the population lives in urban areas (urban areas are defined differently for each country).[62] Right now, there are billions of people who live in urban areas who lack adequate clean water, shelter, toilets and hygiene areas, and/or electricity.[63] The problems this raises with reference to crime, violence, and religious extremism is readily apparent. Concentrating the poor, oppressed and powerless in large cloistered urban centers produces conditions ideal for the spread of crime and the type of religious extremism that lends itself to violent ideologies. Chapter IV Old Terrorism Any government that supports, protects or harbours terrorists is complicit in the murder of the innocent and equally guilty of terrorist crimes. George W. Bush Old Terrorism – Ethno -nationalist or Ideological, and state sponsored What are the differences between the legitimate tactics used by authorities in the quelling or defence of terrorism, and terrorism itself? Nations at times will use violence to control or manipulate parts of their populace, or use intimidation to get what they desire.[67] A government that is an adversary of Country B may apply terror tactics in an effort to make up for real or perceived inadequacies in conventional warfare capabilities. Repression through terror of the indigenous population of their own country may occur to stop the dissent or violent uprising inside the country that Country B might exploit. Special Operations forces, paramilitary forces and state intelligence assets could conduct terrorist operations against Country B interests both inter-regionally and as far outside the countries borders as the abilities of their external security apparatus will allow to destabilize Country B and bring desired visibility to the sponsoring governments issues. Finally, attacks on Country B on their home soil may be conducted by RMIGs of the state or by other domestic proxies.[68] This is being seen today in Iraq with the Iranian involvement to destabilize Iraq and kill coalition servicemen, as well as Pakistans efforts to destabilize the Jammu and K ashmir region of India. Forms of State Terror Governmental or State terror State involvement in terror State sponsorship of terrorism Turning a blind eye to the harboring/funding of terror groups in their borders[69] Governmental or State terror Governmental or State terror is normally seen when a regime uses threats or outright terror to its own populace to exert power over or suppress them.[73] These weapons were not used against the majority Muslim population in the southern 2/3 of Iraq, where he accomplished his goals using conventional state terror methods. State involvement in terror State involvement in terror includes the activities where government personnel perform operations using terror tactics that are directed against other nations interests, individuals or private groups that have opposing or controversial opinions/actions viewed as counter to that of the state. In essence, it is governmentally authorized terrorism, though these sanctions hardly ever come to public light. Some past examples of this governmentally authorized terrorism are the assassination include the Soviet and Iranian assassination operations aimed at state dissidents who moved abroad for fear of their lives. Additionally, the targeting and destroying (through a covert bombing campaign carried out by Libyan and North Korean intelligence officers) of international airliners was another past example of this form of terrorism.[75] A further form of state involvement in terror is pro-state terror. This is a terror campaign carried out by small groups or individual people who have no authorized status in the system. These type of attacks generally are lacking in official support as well. Pro-state terror may have the end result of a desired outcome which the government wants. In these cases, with official use of violent crime tacitly supported by the authorities, even though the groups or individuals have gone outside the rule of punishment of the terrorists is rare. State sponsorship of terrorism State sponsorship of terrorism, also referred to as state supported terrorism, represents a situation when non-state terrorist organizations are trained, equipped and operationalized by an authorized national governmental agency. A very productive aspects of this support is the providing of safe havens for terrorists organizations.[78] Examples of state sponsorship of terrorism are the overt support by the government of Syria to Hamas as well as Lebanons overt support and backing of Hezbollah. Syrian funding and the providing of safe havens facilitate many training areas in the Beka Valley territory.[81] Chapter V New Terrorism Terrorism is carried out purposefully, in a cold-blooded, calculated fashion. The declared goals of the terrorist may change from place to place. He supposedly fig problems his only solution is the demolition of the whole structure of society. No partial solution, not even the total redressing of the grievance he complains of, will satisfy him until our social system is destroyed or delivered into his hands. BENJAMIN NETANYAHU, International Terrorism New Terrorism – Transnational or Global Jihadism The first efforts to describe a new form of terrorism began to occur in the 1990s, when scholars of terrorism attempted to make sense of a phenomenon they were seeing that did not fit into the previous model of terrorism in the 1970s and 1980s. Attacks such as that of the religious cult Aum Shinrikyo did not make sense without a reconsideration of the old model. In reality, the term new terrorism truly came into its own only after the September 11, 2001 attacks.[82] In a short comparative of the new and old terrorism, it has been stated that: * The new terrorism is justified on religious and apocalyptic grounds, while the old terrorism was rooted in political ideology.[83] * The new terrorism aims at destruction as an end in itself, while the old terrorism used violent destruction as a means to a political end;[84] * The new terrorism is organizationally distinct from the old terrorism. It is hierarchical (has many equally authoritative points of leadership) and horizontal, rather than hierarchical and vertical; it is decentralized rather than centralized;[85] * The new terrorism aims at as much destruction as possible, whether through devastating forms of weaponry or techniques such as suicide terrorism, whereas the old terrorism sought to create a dramatic spectacle with as little damage as possible;[86] More recently, those who write about new terrorism have focused on a perceived new threat of mass casualties caused by chemical, biological or other agents.[89] On the counter point, when one looks holistically and historically at Terrorism, there seems to be no old or new terrorism, just a Darwinistic evolution of violence for political purposes. Even Martha Crenshaw, the noted terrorism expert who is a staunch advocate against the use of the term New Terrorism states the following in comparing and contrasting the goals, methods, and organization of New and Old Terrorism: Goals The new terrorism model assumes uniformly that religion, primarily of those groups with millennial and apocalyptic ideologies, is the main precipitating factor. The new terrorists are said to have ambiguous goals on the systemic level and to value destruction for its own sake (i.e., the means are the ends). By contrast, the old terrorism is seen as comprehensible, limited, more specific, and often tied to territory – thus making the grievance more susceptible to negotiation. How well does the new terrorism model fit the historical record? Crenshaw observes that the religion behind various groups (e.g., Aum Shinrikyo versus Al Qaeda) differs, as do their goals (i.e., local or global). She also notes that some of the old terrorist groups (e.g., the 19th century anarchists and the Red Army Faction) had broad, transnational goals.[90] Means According to the new terrorism model, groups seek to kill as many people as possible and are particularly drawn to weapons of mass destruction, whereas the old terrorism approach assumed that the groups were limited in their means as well as goals. Crenshaw acknowledged that the new terrorism model best fits with respect to this criterion. [91] Organization and structure The new terrorists are decentralized and networked, are inspiration-driven, and often include amateurs. By contrast, the old terrorists are centralized, top-down, professional organizations that are often state sponsored. The new terrorism distinction only partly meets this criterion as many of the old terrorist groups, such as the Red Army faction, were not so monolithic. The bottom line seems to lend itself to seeing terrorism as not new in kind, but in degree and structure.[92] The new terror groups of today (Al Qaeda being the most well known) center mainly around religion as a core for recruitment and promulgation of ideology. Islam is the religion of choice and has found a massive following in Middle Eastern Arab Muslims, especially the Wahabists of Saudi Arabia, but the splinter groups, or those groups loosely associated, have worldwide reach.[93] These organizations differ significantly from more traditional terrorist organizations of past decades. The groups of today do not depend on the sponsorship of a political state, and, unlike the PLO or the IRA, they are not defined by a particular conflict. Instead, these groups operate analogous to the businesses McDonalds or Starbucks. Al Qaeda is the franchise owner, providing financial and logistical support, as well as name recognition, to local, regional and transnational terrorist groups operating in such diverse places as the Philippines, Algeria, Eritrea, Afghanistan, Chechnya, Tajikistan, Somalia, Ye men, and Kashmir. Local groups may carry out acts in the name of al-Qaeda in order to bolster their own reputation—even if they are not receiving support from the organization. This is possible because the ideology that al Qaeda has developed and promulgated focuses their concepts to stress a few main tenants to ensure the survival and spread of the movement. Ensuring the perpetuity of the fight.[94] Obeying the individual obligation to fight Islams enemies regardless of the apparent outcome of battle[95] Institutionalizing a culture of martyrdom[96] Pinpointing Islams enemies through the refining process of jihad, and thus maintaining its identity[97] Establishing pride, brotherhood, and unity in the face of threats to the ummah[98] Creating a parity of suffering with Islams enemies—especially the Jews and Crusaders[99] Victory is seen in the maladies afflicting Gods enemies, especially economic recession and natural disasters[100] Observing miracles and dreams in jihad, which foretell of divine guidance and ultimate victory for the mujahedeen[101] As long as groups follow these main tenants, and focus their violence against the common enemy, then they are supporting the common cause. Due to this, Scott Atran argues that it is not religion, but group dynamics based off of social needs that fuels the Global Jihadist movement but small-group dynamics involving friends and family that form the diaspora cell of brotherhood and camaraderie on which the rising tide of martyrdom actions is based.[102] As mentioned by Crenshaw above, one of the main improvements of New terrorism is that of decentralized execution of actions that may or may not have been planned by some higher authority. As stated in the United States Air Force Defense Doctrine publication 1, Decentralized execution is, the delegation of execution authority to responsible and capable lower-level commanders to achieve effective span of control and to foster disciplined initiative, situational responsiveness, and tactical flexibility.[103] Chapter VI New Old Terrorism In todays wars, there are no morals. We believe the worst thieves in the world today and the worst terrorists are the Americans. We do not have to differentiate between military or civilian. As far as we are concerned, they are all targets. Osama Bin Laden Time magazine profile (16 September 2001) The Pendulum Swings Back For better or worse (and this author believes it is worsemuch worse) the pendulum is swinging back in the direction of state sponsored terrorism. For nations like Pakistan and Iran, the pendulum never moved, as these countries have been manning, training, equipping, and operationalizing terrorist groups for decades.[108] Iran has consistently been described by the United States as the worlds foremost state sponsor of terrorism. It actively supports terrorist groups, most prominently the Lebanese group Hezbollah.[115]. Iran and Hezbollah Hezbollah, a radical Shiite militia based in Lebanon, is a direct product of funding and training by Irans IRGC (QF). It was formally established in 1982 following the Israeli invasion of Lebanon, aimed at uprooting the PLO (Palestinian Liberation Organization) bases there.[119] RMIG takeover of Islamic Nations For other nations that have not been wholly engaged in state sponsored terrorism, there are growing dangers as well. There are two types of new and developing state sponsored terrorism which may very soon roll a number of these nations into the terrorist state fold. The first one, unfortunately, we are all familiar with, as the most accurate example being the Al Qaeda infiltration of Afghanistan. After the Soviet Union finally withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989 the communist Afghani government hung on for three more years, and then was finally overrun by RMIGs.[121] These services and practical, day-to-day contributions to the lives of ordinary citizens will provide a legitimacy and underpinning for future political activities by terrorist organizations. This RMIG sponsored ground root social support, combined with the reality that in almost every country in the Muslim world, western focused terrorism already has the sympathy of a majority of the population and the strong allegiance o f many, will in the near future give rise to terrorist based governments in many middle-eastern countries. The second development in state sponsored terrorism is focused at the western nations, with Europe directly in the crosshairs and North America soon to follow. The most dangerous and most likely future development in the spread of terrorism is that caused by population growth and immigration of Muslims into western lands. The bottom line is that there is a near irreversible trend in the expansion of Islam into Europe and Canada.[125] In essence, Europe in the next 50 years will be of a very different demographic makeup as it is now. Of all population growth in the EU in the last 20 years, 90% has been from immigrants, much of which were Islamic.[126] In France, though the statistics vary, the Islamic fertility rate is considered much higher than the 1.8 of native Frenchmen, as Islamic immigrants make up only 7.5% of the population yet account for 20% of the fertility rate.[128] It is not just France. As of 2001, the Muslim population in Great Britain rose from 82,000 in 1991 to 1,600,000 (Estimated at 2,500,000 today).[131] Compared to the decline in population of a majority of the industrialized nations, The United States (thanks to Latino immigration) will maintain the current fertility rate of 2.11 children per couple, thus providing the body pool to maintain strength in the global economy, as the European Union falls to third place behind the United States and China.[132] Whether it be by overthrow in an unstable middle-eastern country, or out-breeding the populations of western nations, it can be assumed that RMIGs will gain control of (or at least strong influence over) a functioning country in the next half century. If the terrorists do gain control of a country with a fully functioning and stable government, the nature of the game changes drastically. When terrorists becomethe government, all terrorism is state-sponsored The nations wealth, scientists, laboratories and research facilities can be focused to develop weapons of mass destruction of all types for use in the global jihad. Even in the absence of WMD, by gaining the status and legitimacy of a national government, radical Islamists will present western and developed nations with a difficult problem. We have seen in Afghanistan and Pakistan the benefits that a sovereign safe-haven has provi

The Ambiguous Nature of Hamlet :: GCSE Coursework Shakespeare Hamlet

The Ambiguous Nature of Hamlet       In William Shakespeare's Hamlet, the protagonist exhibits a puzzling, duplicitous nature. Hamlet contradicts himself throughout the play. He endorses both the virtues of acting a role and that of being true to one's self. He further supports both of these conflicting endorsements with his actions. This ambiguity is demonstrated by his alleged madness, for he does behave madly, only to become perfectly calm and rational an instant later. These inconsistencies are related with the internal dilemmas he faces. He struggles with the issue of revenging his father's death, vowing to kill Claudius and then backing out, several times. Upon this point Hamlet stammers through the play. The reason for this teetering is directly related to his inability to form a solid opinion about role playing. This difficulty is not present, however, at the start of the play.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the first act, Hamlet appears to be very straightforward in his actions and inner state. When questioned by Gertrude about his melancholy appearance, Hamlet says, "Seems, madam? Nay it is. I know not `seems.' (1.2.76). This is to say "I am what I appear to be." Later In Act I,   Hamlet makes a clear statement about his state when he commits himself to revenge. In this statement the play makes an easy to follow shift. This shift consists of Hamlet giving up the role of a student and mourning son. Hamlet says, I'll wipe away all trivial fond records,  Ã‚   All saws of books, all forms, all pressures past,  Ã‚   That youth and observation copied there, And thy commandment all alone shall live  Ã‚   Within the book and volume of my brain (1.5.99-103).    Hamlet is declaring that he will be committed to nothing else but the revenge of his father's death. There is no confusion about Hamlet's character. He has said earlier that he is what he appears to be, and there is no reason to doubt it. In the next act, however, Hamlet's status and intentions suddenly, and with out demonstrated reason, become mired in confusion. When Hamlet appears again in act two, it seems that he has lost the conviction that was present earlier. He has yet to take up the part assigned to him by the ghost. He spends the act walking around, reading, talking with Polonius, Rosencrantz, Guildenstern, and the players. It is not until the very end of the act that he even mentions vengeance.

Presentation Skills Essay

Introduction Presentations are a way of communicating ideas and information to a group. A good presentation has: †¢ Content – It contains information that people need. Unlike reports, it must account for how much information the audience can absorb in one sitting. †¢ Structure – It has a logical beginning, middle, and end. It must be sequenced and paced so that the audience can understand it. Where as reports have appendices and footnotes, the presenter must be careful not to loose the audience when wandering from the main point of the presentation. †¢ Packaging – It must be well prepared. A report can be reread and portions skipped over, but the audience is at the mercy of a presenter. †¢ Human Element – A good presentation will be remembered much more than a good report because it has a person attached to it. But you still need to analyze if the audience’s needs would not be better met if a report was sent instead. The Voice The voice is probably the most valuable tool of the presenter. It carries most of the content that the audience takes away. One of the oddities of speech is that we can easily tell others what is wrong with their voice, e.g. too fast, too high, too soft, etc., but we have trouble listening to and changing our own voices. There are four main terms used for defining vocal qualities: †¢ Volume: How loud the sound is. The goal is to be heard without shouting. Good speakers lower their voice to draw the audience in, and raise it to make a point. †¢ Tone: The characteristics of a sound. An airplane has a different sound than leaves being rustled by the wind. A voice that carries fear can frighten the audience, while a voice that carries laughter can get the audience to smile. †¢ Pitch: How high or low a note is. Pee Wee Herman has a high voice, Barbara Walters has a moderate voice, while James Earl Jones has a low voice. †¢ Color: Both projection and tone variance can be practiced by taking the  line â€Å"This new policy is going to be exciting† and saying it first with surprise, then with irony, then with grief, and finally with anger. The key is to over-act. Remember Shakespeare’s words â€Å"All the world’s a stage† — presentations are the opening night on Broadway! There are two good methods for improving your voice: †¢ †¢Listen to it! Practice listening to your voice while at home, driving, walking, etc. Then when you are at work or with company, monitor your voice to see if you are using it how you want to. To really listen to your voice, cup your right hand around your right ear and gently pull the -1-  ear forward. Next, cup your left hand around your mouth and direct the sound straight into your ear. This helps you to really hear your voice as others hear it†¦and it might be completely different from the voice you thought it was! Now practice moderating your voice. The Body Your body communicates different impressions to the audience. People not only listen to you, they also watch you. Slouching tells them you are indifferent or you do not care†¦even though you might care a great deal! On the other hand, displaying good posture tells your audience that you know what you are doing and you care deeply about it. Also, a good posture helps you to speak more clearly and effective. Throughout you presentation, display: †¢ Eye contact: This helps to regulate the flow of communication. It signals interest in others and increases the speaker’s credibility. Speakers who make eye contact open the flow of communication and convey interest,  concern, warmth, and credibility. †¢ Facial Expressions: Smiling is a powerful cue that transmits happiness, friendliness, warmth, and liking. So, if you smile frequently you will be perceived as more likable, friendly, warm, and approachable. Smiling is often contagious and others will react favorably. They will be more comfortable around you and will want to listen to you more. †¢ Gestures: If you fail to gesture while speaking, you may be perceived as boring and stiff. A lively speaking style captures attention, makes the material more interesting, and facilitates understanding. †¢ Posture and body orientation: You communicate numerous messages by the way you talk and move. Standing erect and leaning forward communicates that you are approachable, receptive, and friendly. Interpersonal closeness results when you and your audience face each other. Speaking with your back turned or looking at the floor or ceiling should be avoided as it communicates disinterest. †¢ Proximity: Cultural norms dictate a comfortable distance for interaction with others. You should look for signals of discomfort caused by invading other’s space. Some of these are: rocking, leg swinging, tapping, and gaze aversion. Typically, in large rooms, space invasion is not a problem. In most instances there is too much distance. To counteract this, move around the room to increase interaction with your audience. Increasing the proximity enables you to make better eye contact and increases the opportunities for others to speak. †¢ Vary your voice. One of the major criticisms of speakers is that they speak in a monotone voice. Listeners perceive this type of speaker as boring and dull. People report that they learn less and lose interest more quickly when listening to those who have not learned to modulate their voices. -2- Active Listening Good speakers not only inform their audience, they also listen to them. By listening, you know if they are understanding the information and if the information is important to them. Active listening is NOT the same as hearing! Hearing is the first part and consists of the perception of sound. Listening, the second part, involves an attachment of meaning to the aural symbols that are perceived. Passive listening occurs when the receiver has little motivation to listen carefully. Active listening with a purpose is used to gain information, to determine how another person feels, and to understand others. Some good traits of effective listeners are: Spend more time listening than talking (but of course, as a presenter, you will be doing most of the talking). †¢ Do not finish the sentence of others. †¢ Aware of biases. We all have them. We need to control them. †¢ Never daydream or become preoccupied with their own thoughts when others talk. †¢ Let the other speaker talk. Do not dominate the conversation. †¢ Plan responses after others have finished speaking†¦NOT while they are speaking. Their full concentration is on what others are saying, not on what they are going to respond with. †¢ Provide feedback but do not interrupt incessantly. †¢ Analyze by looking at all the relevant factors and asking open-ended questions. Walk the person through analysis (summarize). †¢ Keep the conversation on what the speaker says†¦NOT on what interest them. Listening can be one of our most powerful communication tools! Be sure to use it! Part of the listening process is getting feedback by changing and altering the message so the intention of the original communicator is understood by the second communicator. This is done by paraphrasing the words of the sender and restating the sender’s feelings or ideas in your own words, rather than repeating their words. Your words should be saying, â€Å"This is what I understand your feelings to be, am I correct?† It not only includes verbal responses, but also nonverbal ones. Nodding your head or squeezing their hand to show agreement, dipping your eyebrows to show you don’t quite understand the meaning of their last phrase, or sucking air in deeply and blowing out hard shows that you are also exasperated with the  situation. Carl Roger listed five main categories of feedback. They are listed in the order in which they occur most frequently in daily conversations (notice that we make judgments more often than we try to understand): -3- 1. Evaluative: Makes a judgment about the worth, goodness, or appropriateness of the other person’s statement. 2. Interpretive: Paraphrasing – attempt to explain what the other persons statement mean. 3. Supportive: Attempt to assist or bolster the other communicator 4. Probing: Attempt to gain additional information, continue the discussion, or clarify a point. Understanding: Attempt to discover completely what the other communicator means by her statements. Nerves The main enemy of a presenter is tension, which ruins the voice, posture, and spontaneity. The voice becomes higher as the throat tenses. Shoulders tighten up and limits flexibility while the legs start to shake and causes unsteadiness. The presentation becomes â€Å"canned† as the speaker locks in on the notes and starts to read directly from them. First, do not fight nerves, welcome them! Then you can get on with the presentation instead of focusing in on being nervous. Actors recognize the value of nerves†¦they add to the value of the performance. This is because adrenaline starts to kick in. It’s a left over from our ancestors’ â€Å"fight or flight† syndrome. If you welcome nerves, then the presentation becomes a challenge and you become better. If you let your nerves take over, then you go into the flight mode by withdrawing from the audience. Again, welcome your nerves, recognize them, let them help you gain that needed edge! Do not go into the flight mode! When you feel tension or anxiety, remember that everyone gets them, but the winners use them to their advantage, while the losers get overwhelmed by them. Tension can be reduced by performing some relaxation exercises. Listed below  are a couple to get you started: †¢ Before the presentation: Lie on the floor. Your back should be flat on the floor. Pull your feet towards you so that your knees are up in the air. Relax. Close your eyes. Fell your back spreading out and supporting your weight. Feel your neck lengthening. Work your way through your body, relaxing one section at a time – your toes, feet, legs, torso, etc. When finished, stand up slowly and try to maintain the relaxed feeling in a standing position. †¢ If you cannot lie down: Stand with you feet about 6 inches apart, arms hanging by your sides, and fingers unclenched. Gently shake each part of your body, starting with your hands, then arms, shoulders, torso, and legs. Concentrate on shaking out the tension. Then slowly rotate your shoulders forwards and the backwards. Move on to your head. Rotate it slowly clockwise, and then counter-clockwise. †¢ Mental Visualization: Before the presentation, visualize the room, audience,and you giving the presentation. Mentally go over what you are going to do from the moment you start to the end of the presentation. -4- †¢ During the presentation: Take a moment to yourself by getting a drink of water, take a deep breath, concentrate on relaxing the most tense part of your body, and then return to the presentation saying to your self, â€Å"I can do it!† †¢ You do NOT need to get rid of anxiety and tension! Channel the energy into concentration and expressiveness. †¢ Know that anxiety and tension is not as noticeable to the audience as it is to you. †¢ Know that even the best presenters make mistakes. The key is to continue on after the mistake. If you pick up and continue, so will the audience. Winners continue! Losers stop. Never drink alcohol to reduce tension! It affects not only your coordination but also your awareness of coordination. You might not realize it, but your audience will! Questions  Although some people get a perverse pleasure from putting others on the spot, and some try to look good in front of the boss, most people ask questions from a genuine interest. Questions do not mean you did not explain the topic good enough, but that their interest is deeper than the average audience. Always allow time at the end of the presentation for questions. After inviting questions, do not rush ahead if no one asks a question. Pause for about 6 seconds to allow the audience to gather their thoughts. When a question is asked, repeat the question to ensure that everyone heard it (and that you heard it correctly). When answering, direct your remarks to the entire audience. That way, you keep everyone focused, not just the questioner. To reinforce your presentation, try to relate the question back to the main points. Make sure you listen to the question being asked. If you do not understand it, ask them to clarify. Pause to think about the question as the answer you give may be correct, but ignore the main issue. If you do not know the answer, be honest, do not waffle. Tell them you will get back to them†¦and make sure you do! Answers that last 10 to 40 seconds work best. If they are too short, they seem abrupt; while longer answers appear too elaborate. Also, be sure to keep on track. Do not let off-the-wall questions sidetrack you into areas that are not relevant to the presentation. If someone takes issue with something you said, try to find a way to agree with part of their argument. For example, â€Å"Yes, I understand your position†¦Ã¢â‚¬  or â€Å"I’m glad you raised that point, but†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The idea is to praise their point and agree with them. Audiences sometimes tend to think of â€Å"us verses you.† You do not want to risk alienating them. Preparing the Presentation -5- Great presentations require some preplanning. First, read Meetings for an outline of preparing and conducting a meeting, such as acquiring a room, informing participants, etc. A presentation follows the same basic guidelines as preparing for a meeting. The second step is to prepare the presentation: †¢ A good presentation starts out with introductions and an icebreaker such as a story, interesting statement or fact, joke, quotation, or an activity to get the group warmed up. The introduction also needs an objective, that is, the purpose or goal of the presentation. This not only tells you what you will talk about, but it also informs the audience of the purpose of the presentation. †¢ Next, comes the body of the presentation. Do NOT write it out word for word. All you want is an outline. By jotting down the main points on a set of  index cards, you not only have your outline, but also a memory jogger for the actual presentation. To prepare the presentation, ask yourself the following: What is the purpose of the presentation? Who will be attending? What does the audience already know about the subject? What is the audience’s attitude towards me (e.g. hostile, friendly)? †¢ A 45 minutes talk should have no more than about seven main points. This may not seem like very many, but if you are to leave the audience with a clear picture of what you have said, you cannot expect them to remember much more than that. †¢ There are several options for structuring the presentation: Timeline – Arranged in sequential order. Climax – The main points are delivered in order of increasing importance. Problem/Solution – A problem is presented, a solution is suggested, and benefits are then given. Classification – The important items are the major points. Simple to complex – Ideas are listed from the simplest to the most complex. done in reverse order. †¢ Can also be You want to include some visual information that will help the audience understand your presentation. Develop charts, graphs, slides, handouts, etc. -6- †¢ After the body, comes the closing. This is where you ask for questions, provide a wrap-up (summary), and thank the participants for attending. Notice that you told them what they are about to hear (the objective), told them (the body), and told them what they heard (the wrap up).  And finally, the important part – practice, practice, practice. The main purpose of creating an outline is to develop a coherent plan of what you want to talk about. You should know your presentation so well, that during the actual presentation, you should only have to briefly glance at your notes to ensure you are staying on track. This will also help you with your nerves by giving you the confidence that you can do it. Your practice session should include a â€Å"live† session by practicing in front of coworkers, family, or friends. They can be valuable at providing feedback and it gives you a chance to practice controlling your nerves. Another great feedback technique is to make a video or audio tape of your presentation and review it critically with a colleague. Habits We all have a few habits, and some are more annoying than others. For example, if we say â€Å"uh,† â€Å"you know,† or put our hands in our pockets and jingle our keys too often during a presentation, it distracts from the message we are trying to get across. The best way to break one of these distracting habits is with immediate feedback. This can be done with a small group of coworkers, family, or friends. Take turns giving small off-the-cuff talks about your favorite hobby, work project, first work assignment, etc. It talk should last about five minutes. During a speaker’s first talk, the audience should listen and watch for annoying habits. After the presentation, the audience should agree on the worst two or three habits that take the most away from the presentation. After agreement, each audience member should write these habits on a 8 1/2†³ x 11†³ sheet of paper (such as the word â€Å"Uh†). Use a magic marker and write in BIG letters. The next time the person gives her or his talk, each audience member should wave the corresponding sign in For most people, this method will break a habit by practicing at least once a day for one to two weeks. Tips and Techniques For Great Presentations †¢ If you have handouts, do not read straight from them. The audience does they should read along with you or listen to you read. not know if †¢ Do not put both hands in your pockets for long periods of time. This tends to make you  look unprofessional. It is OK to put one hand in a pocket but ensure there is no loose change  or keys to jingle around. This will distract the listeners. -7- †¢ Do not wave a pointer around in the air like a wild knight branding a sword to slay a  dragon. Use the pointer for what it is intended and then put it down, otherwise the audience will become fixated upon your â€Å"sword†,  instead upon you. †¢ Do not lean on the podium for long periods. The audience will begin to are going to fall over. wonder when you †¢ Speak to the audience†¦NOT to the visual aids, such as flip charts or overheads. Also, do not stand between the visual aid and the audience. †¢ Speak clearly and loudly enough for all to hear. Do not speak in a inflection to emphasize your main points. monotone voice. Use †¢ The disadvantages of presentations is that people cannot see the punctuation and this  can lead to misunderstandings. An effective way of overcoming this problem is to pause at the time when there would normally be punctuation marks. †¢ Use colored backgrounds on overhead transparencies and slides (such as yellow) as  the bright white light can be harsh on the eyes. This will quickly cause your audience to tire. If all of your transparencies or slides have clear backgrounds, then tape one blank yellow one on the overhead face. For slides, use a rubber band to hold a piece of colored cellophane over the projector lens. †¢ Learn the name of each participant as quickly as possible. Based upon the atmosphere  you want to create, call them by their first names or by using Mr., Mrs., Miss, Ms. †¢ Tell them what name and title you prefer to be called. †¢ Listen intently to comments and opinions. By using a lateral thinking technique (adding  to ideas rather than dismissing them), the audience will feel that their ideas, comments, and opinions are worthwhile. †¢ Circulate around the room as you speak. This movement creates a the audience. physical closeness to †¢ List and discuss your objectives at the beginning of the presentation. Let the audience know how your presentation fits in with their goals. Discuss some of the fears and  apprehensions that both you and the audience might have. Tell them what they should expect of you and how you will  contribute to their goals. †¢ Vary your techniques (lecture, discussion, debate, films, slides, reading, etc.) †¢ Get to the presentation before your audience arrives; be the last one to leave. †¢ Be prepared to use an alternate approach if the one you’ve chosen seems to bog down. You should be confident enough with your own material so  that the audience’s interests and -8- concerns, not the presentation outline, determines the format. Use your background, experience, and knowledge to interrelate your subject matter. †¢ When writing on flip charts use no more than 7 lines of text per page and no more  than 7 word per line (the 7/7 rule). Also, use bright and bold colors, and pictures as well as text. †¢ Consider the time of day and how long you have got for your talk. Time of day  can  affect the audience. After lunch is known as the graveyard section in training circles as audiences will feel more like a nap than listening to a  talk. †¢ Most people find that if they practice in their head, the actual talk will take about 25 per cent longer. Using a flip chart or other visual aids also adds to the time. Remember – it is better to finish slightly early than to overrun.

Diversity in an organization

Diversity in an organization Diversity is being considered as a dream for capitalist. This is because they are not fully aware of the best and appropriate time to implement the program in business. Many still wonder if it will be appropriate to implement it today or in future. However, Diversity Program leaders should first comprehend their evolutionary practice to be able to obtain success.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Diversity in an organization specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More They should also understand that there is no limit in attaining diversity due to dynamic changes in communication, mobility and diversity itself (Cramer 1). Nevertheless, the most advantageous time to implement diversity in the organization is now. This is because organizational effectiveness will be at risk if the managers do not possess efficient diversity management skills. Diversity is the greatest asset in an organization; it should be acquired and cultivated b efore it is applied. There are numerous advantages and disadvantages of implementing diversity program in business. For example, leaders who possess excellent knowledge in managing large group of employees are capable of promoting productivity, stimulating employee morale and are able to avail and access new sectors in the marketplace. Some of the problems that diverse organizations face include communication issues, racism and discrimination. This paper summarizes the key business arguments for and against diversity as illustrated in the two articles. Increase in revenue is one of the major advantages of diversity in business. This is because diversity in business promotes innovation and creativity which results in increased revenue. Organizations that have diverse workforce have a great experience in solving issues and problems. They also have ease in implementing decisions since the entire workforce contribute in the decision making process creating understanding and corporation when it comes to work. Those companies that have committed themselves in using Diversity Programs experience strategic advantage (Cramer 1).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Such organizations are able to understand and respond to cultural consequences experienced when the organization sets its strategies and also during sales process. According to the report of a study conducted by researchers, high productivity will be the result obtained for accurately administering and training diverse organizational employees. The report also indicated that diverse teams record higher productivity. Workers can learn and benefit from each other in a diverse environment. This will enhance effectiveness, creativity, improvement and increase performance among the workers. One of the disadvantages of diverse organization is high turnover where you find that the turnover for one grou p of consumers is higher than the other. For instance, a car dealer in Japan is likely to get that a huge number of his customers are mainly women who are not citizens of Japan. Chinese people make a quarter of the world’s population and this means that consumer-goods industry is flooded with Chinese people (Hubbard 1). Therefore the organization will miss many market opportunities of reaching potentially profitable consumers. Many cases of discrimination, racism and biasness will crop up when an organization has one line of target group. The organization will only be focused on the target group while ignoring others. If diversity is not effectively used in an organization, it can bring serious problems that will generally led to lower production from the workforce. In conclusion, diversity is the greatest asset in an organization; it should therefore be acquired and cultivated before it is applied. The time to implement diversity in organizations is now. Corporations should therefore take the initiative of acquiring and cultivation their Diversity Programs for them to achieve effectiveness. Corporate leaders should redefine their own diverse efforts to obtain maturity and success in the long run. They should however be fully aware of advantages and disadvantages of Diversity Programs and look for a way of dealing with its shortcomings.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Diversity in an organization specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Cramer, Vincent. Diversity: A Capitalist’s Dream. Boston: Convergence Media, Inc, 2003. Hubbard, Edward. The Business Case for Diversity. California: Hubbard Hubbard Inc, 2009.

Meri Moken †Why Antibiotics Stop Working

Meri Moken – Why Antibiotics Stop Working Free Online Research Papers In 1993, when Meri Moken got recognized by various institutions for her research work on the effect of detergents on bacteria, a lot of her work was actually a reflection of a broader spectrum of research that had started as early as the 1960s. What Meri essentially discovered was the resistance of bacteria to household detergents and bleaches – a subset of the age-old capability by bacteria to adapt to harmful chemicals. Her discovery illuminated the ever-burgeoning problems that pathogens present: that, over time, they become harder to eradicate, as any chemicals used against them become ineffective. Pathogens present a huge problem in the medical world, because not only are they becoming more problematic despite advances in antibiotics, but also because the advances are actually making the problem worse. As an illustration, the Escherichia coli, an intestinal bacterium, grew resistant to all fluoroquinolone antibiotics administered against it within a decade. This high rate of adaptation presents a grave problem, since it implies that scientific advances would be hard-pressed to keep up with the bacteria. Then, in 1994, it was discovered that some strains of Streptococcus pneumonia were resistant to Penicillin, and that a full 25% of all people suffering from this Pneumonia were resistant to antibiotics. It was a further indication that the war against pathogen was slowly, but surely, being lost. There are several ways in which bacteria can gain mastery over any antibiotic thrown at them. Every new antibiotic essentially places a kind of selective pressure on them, and the most adapted amongst them survive down the generations. Sometimes, a spontaneous mutation in the bacterial DNA may result in an organism with a higher level of resistance. Other bacteria engage in a process called transformation – a microbial sex-like process in which DNAs are shuffled between two organisms. But most ominous of all adaptation methods is the one in which bacteria interchange a section of DNA called a plasmid amongst themselves. It is ominous since it presents a very efficient way of increasing the overall adaptability of bacteria, without incurring the unpredictability that mutation presents. The resistance that results from the DNA changes within the bacteria is expressed in several ways, at the molecular level. Some of the bacteria change the target molecule, essentially inactivating it and thus making it harmless. Others go a step further and decompose the molecule into its elements. Others simply sequester the offending drug, thus keeping it away from their warpaths. And finally, some bacteria keep the fatal chemicals out of the cells, and prevent their entrance to it. Since the bacterial problem is a serious menace, several solutions have been suggested to help keep bacteria in their rightful place within the biosphere. Firstly, antibiotics should only be used when absolutely necessary. Using them at any other time only increases chances of developing resistance in the microbes. Secondly, all antibiotics, once administered, should be taken until the entire dose is completed. Partially resistant bacteria are less likely to survive and multiply when doses are completed. Thirdly, narrow-spectrum antibiotics should be used, to avoid triggering adaptation mechanism in other bacteria within the vicinity. And finally, vaccines can be innovated to act on a preventative platform rather than a curative one. References Why files (1997) What doesn’t kill them makes them stronger Retrieved 21st January 2009 from Research Papers on Meri Moken - Why Antibiotics Stop WorkingGenetic EngineeringThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalResearch Process Part OneInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of Self19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductMind TravelOpen Architechture a white paper

Food labeling Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Food labeling - Essay Example Even while conceding to the fact that most consumers probably do not read food labels and labels add to the cost of foods, there is a strong rationale for labelling. Food labelling provides consumers with a breakdown of the primary ingredients and composites contained in a food product and, of course, its calorific value. More recently, and as a result of growing health awareness, carbohydrate value was added to food labels (Charles, 2001). There are several reasons for the mandatory labelling of food products, the majority of which derive from the notion of the right to know and from health issues. As regards the first, consumers have a right to know the composition of the food products they are purchasing so that they can make an informed purchase decision. As regards the second, food labelling information is imperative for the millions who suffer allergies, have health issues or are required to adhere to a certain diet. In other words, the value and importance of labelling can har dly be overstated, especially when considering that allergies can be fatal. Therefore, there is a strong reason and specific purpose for mandatory food labelling but the question is whether or not the purpose of food labelling is satisfied. Although most all countries have f... According to Weirich (2007) some countries do not have national laws mandating food labelling while others have made the comprehensive listing of all ingredients and composites, a non-negotiable imperative. In the Middle East, and in compliance with both national laws and international standards, the nutritional information of foods is clearly stated on labels printed onto, and not stuck on, food packages. The mandated information is calorific value, nutritional value, ingredients and additives (Weirich, 2007). Laws in the United States have made the listing of all ingredients, additives, nutritional values and calorific value imperative. Again, labels are printed onto and not stuck on the packages for the purposes of avoiding any possibility of tampering with the labels (Weirich, 2007). The European Union has, by far, the most stringent of the food labelling policies. According to Summers (2007), EU food labelling policies mandate the inclusion of all information related to nutritional and calorific value, ingredients and additives and, importantly, a clear indication of whether any GM ingredients had entered into the making of the product in question (Summers, 2007). While much of the information printed onto these labels tends to escape the understanding of consumers as it is highly scientific, it is still important. Its importance stems from the fact that consumers who suffer from specific allergies will be able to, when reading the label, determine whether the food is safe for their consumption or not. Its importance is also due to the fact that food labelling provides diabetics and obese consumers with the information they need for the limitation of their intake of

Is Multiculturalism consistent with liberalism Essay

Is Multiculturalism consistent with liberalism - Essay Example One of the basic questions related with multiculturalism and liberalism has been whether the former is consistent with the latter. As Brian Barry assumes, multiculturalism, or the ‘politics of difference’, makes the basic claim that â€Å"the self-image of liberalism as a tolerant and open creed is inaccurate. In fact, it is said, liberalism imposes a false universality that discriminates against minorities of all kinds.† (Barry 1997, P 3). In a reflective exploration of whether multiculturalism is consistent with liberalism, it becomes evident that these socio-political philosophies are not consistent with each other, mainly because both the philosophies are rooted in different ideologies. Analyzing the relationship between multiculturalism and liberalism, one recognizes that the roots of both these philosophies are in different concepts. Essentially, liberalism is the popular political philosophy in the modern world and it is understood in many different ways su ch as a weak form of social democracy, a political position favorable to markets, etc. According to Brian Barry, â€Å"liberalism stands for individualism (versus communalism), equality (as against any notion of natural or divinely-appointed hierarchy), and moral universalism (as against moral particularism).